There are few prompts that will get you a blank stare in the Western world as consistently as anything involving “Indian cosmology”. In New Age media, you hear the occasional reference to the contours of a supposed model - which include references to a circular (or reincarnating) universe, and the notion that there’s some sort of cosmic dance - carried out by gods that escape simple definition, but whose iconography is weaved into all sorts of consumer goods. You will also occasionally hear about more colorful mythology, like the idea that the world (All worlds? Our world?) is positioned on the back of an intergalactic tortoise, lumbering through the nebula. While there clearly isn’t a simple or universal scheme to unpack, I’ve long wanted to better understand the fundamentals.
In the Story of Rama, the early chapters describe the royal city of Ayodhya in exquisite detail. It is a realm where every element - whether living, functional, or ornamental - is in perfect interlocking harmony. From the most humble workers to the most exalted sages, every individual is working in divine synchrony, within an integrated social fabric. Ayodhya’s martial strength is a righteous force not just for Rama’s realm, but for the entire world. The water is said to be as sweet as cane sugar, and everyone is provided for - regardless of their social class.
The bold assertion is that Ayodhya mirrors the structure of the heavens. Specifically, it is said to mirror Amaravati, the celestial city ruled by the king of the gods, Indra. Whether the scents of the flowers, or the architecture of the buildings, there is stated to be manifold symmetry between the mortal and celestial kingdoms. This naturally invites the question: how exactly are these different realms connected?
The Cosmic Stack
Indian cosmology is interwoven with the core philosophical traditions, and harbors a similar diversity in structure and belief. This heterogeneity makes it difficult to pinpoint any particular proposition or conception as being truly canonical. Some features seem near-universal, but closer inspection of shared terms can reveal a deeper divergence in underlying positions. That said: there are a collection of propositions that one tends to find throughout the different systems, which have their origins in the early Vedic liturgy.
Cyclical Time
The assertion that time, in the broadest sense, is cyclical. Universes have come before us, and they will continue after us - in an infinite procession of creation and destruction. While this claim is often likened to something like Groundhog Day - with a simple mirroring of time between each cycle - this is not the claim. What it means for something to repeat between cycles can vary dramatically - with some writing that it is effectively only a thematic mirroring, with very dissimilar material realities between cycles. Moreover, some traditions claim that certain heavenly dimensions are maintained, between cycles; i.e., asserting that there is some structural permanence.
Hidden Truth
The claim that there are unseen depths to reality; what we see with our eyes, in the material realm, is only a fraction of the story. While the orthodox and heterodox systems each differ on what exactly lies behind the veil, there is a common claim of unseen truth. In Hindu theology, the true reality is interwoven with Brahman, or the Divine; whether a personified entity, an omnipresent reality, or some permutation in between. The heterodox schools tend to make weaker claims about divine origin, or altogether dismiss the notion (as is the case in the Buddhist schools). Even in the latter cases, it’s worth noting that supernatural phenomena and entities are sometimes part of the cosmology; they simply aren’t immortal or divine.
Layered Cosmos
The belief that space, as it encompasses the totality of the extant universe, exists in discrete layers or dimensions. As mortals, we occupy only one plane of reality. In the various theological systems, the other planes are the homes of the gods, demons, more neutral supernatural entities - and in some cases, are locations that our souls may one day visit. Throughout Hindu mythology, it isn’t uncommon for heroes to venture into these other realms - if only temporarily, as part of their quests.
The Lokas
While each of these claims is a field of study in-and-of-itself, recent reading has piqued my interest in the cosmological layer cake. How should one visualize these different layers, exactly? Are they parallel to ours? Do they intersect our material world? Among the diversity of models, I tried to identify a starting handful of elements that seemed to be “staples” across the āstika (orthodox) traditions.
The Trilateral Model
The earliest Indian models of the cosmos, distilled from The Vedas, describe a universe that consists of three planes of existence, known collectively as the Triloka. The loka (plane) that we occupy is known to as Bhuloka. In simpler renditions, it is simply the material Earth, with all of the humans, animals, and sensory trappings that we know. In more elaborate definitions, Bhuloka encompasses some of solar system beyond Earth, within constraints. If anyone asks “where are you?”, you can always respond: “Bhuloka”.
The second plane within the Triloka is dubbed Bhuvarloka. Interestingly, as the “middle” region, it eludes simple distinctions from our realm (Bhuloka). In some conceptions, Bhuvarloka encompasses the “space between the Earth and the Sun” - with details indicating that involves certain planets, but not all in our solar system. (The nine planets, or navagraha, were well known to ancient Indian cosmologists.) The more consistent distinction is in Bhuvarloka’s inhabitants - which include demigods, enlightened humans, and other creatures unseen in the lowest plane.
The third, highest plane is known as Svargaloka, and is considered the celestial realm. It is the closest analogue to the Western “heaven” in the Hindu cosmos, and is where the pantheon of Vedic gods, led by Indra, rules with enlightened decree. In the great Hindu stories, heroes will make momentous journeys to Svargaloka - often for training, or as part of some important task. As Hindu lore and cosmology developed, the position of Svargaloka shifted to reflect a broader hierarchy of divinity. While Indra (Vedic king of the gods) rules atop this three-tiered model of the universe, the evolution of more elaborate models would reflect the emergence of Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma as primary deities.
Additions, High and Low
In the Puranas (wide-ranging Hindu compendiums that followed The Vedas), a more elaborated model of the universe is depicted. While the three planes in the aforementioned Triloka are still present, they are wedged in the middle of a broader paradigm that typically consists of 14 planes. The mapping of particular qualities to individual planes tends to follow somewhat consistent schemes, despite the myriad variations found among the different texts.
In the model shown above, found in the Brahmanda Purana, Bhu(r)loka is the only place in the universe where purely physical (“gross”) characteristics are found. It therefore contains all of material reality, as normatively defined. The 13 planes that are above and below Bhuloka are considered “subtle” planes, which roughly correspond to increasingly heavenly and hellish forces in the universe. While certain planes might be homes to certain types of creatures, many stories involve the transmigration of either holy and evil entities between the various lokas.
The planes ascending from Bhuloka, in the 14-layer model, reach their apex with Satyaloka, also known as Brahmaloka - or the home of Brahma, the Creator within the divine trinity. Satyaloka is said to be full of beautiful gardens, replete with beautiful flowers. Unsurprisingly, the descriptions of Satyaloka mirror many of the descriptions of Svargaloka, the topmost region in the Triloka model. In Hindu traditions which specifically venerate Vishnu, the preserver within the divine trinity, as the supreme deity - there is said to be region even further above Satyaloka, known as Vaikuntha - Vishnu’s infinite realm. An alternate claim is made by those who instead venerate Shiva, the destroyer within the divine trinity, as the supreme god; in their model, Shiva’s infinite realm lies above the conventional layers.
The lower lokas range in their depiction, from literal abodes of demons and generally ominous creatures, to realms that are steeped in negative or debased consciousness. In many Hindu tales, the planes immediately below Bhuloka are full of temptation and sensuous corruption; beautiful entities and magnetic forces that will attract and trap those who stray from their dharma. The moral valence of these realms is often more complex than cartoonish evil that simply opposes the higher good; in many cases, the creatures and forces in this realm are morally complex entities, who might have a burden to bear in this cosmic cycle, based on karma accumulated in prior cycles. The asuras, or conventional demons who oppose the gods of the higher planes, rule the lower lokas - but interestingly, they do not rule the lowest.
The lowest loka, or Patala Loka, is often depicted as a beautiful but dark, jewel-filled realm, which is ruled by supernatural snake/human hybrids known as the naga. The naga do not fit a simple moral template; in some conceptions, they are creatures relegated by Brahma, the creator, to watch over the lowest plane - and to torture only those considered truly evil. Again, this role ties into the circular nature of the universe; the naga of this cosmic cycle were born and tasked, based on the karma they accumulated in prior cycles. The king of the naga, Vasuki, is not present in this lowest loka; instead, he is always seen around Shiva’s collar - evoking a complex synthesis of power, danger, and ultimate subservience to the divine.
Onward
There are several adjacent topics that I’m keen to dive into next. This includes the more esoteric Hindu traditions, which transpose the notion of physical lokas into the journey of personal consciousness. In these traditions, the elevated lokas correspond to realms of increasing enlightenment; while the lower lokas correspond to debased or sensory modes of being that must be transcended, in order to grasp truth and attain freedom.
The Indian tapestry does not cleanly divide cosmology from philosophy, theology, or mythology. While this can make it difficult to navigate and distinguish between propositions, it also means that you consistently encounter intriguing or thoughtful conceptualizations - which often challenge the traditional boundaries of Western systems.